Transnational crime innovation - How human trafficking networks adapt to migration policies – the North Macedonian response during the everlasting European migrant crisis

This article examines how transnational organised criminal networks involved in human
trafficking and migrant smuggling have adapted to changing migration policies and border
control regimes along the Western Balkan route, with a focus on North Macedonia as a key
transit country. Using criminological theory, legal analysis, and longitudinal data, the study
covers the period from the 2015 migrant crisis to 2024. The findings show that criminal
groups have evolved into flexible, network-based structures marked by route diversification,
technological innovation, and polycriminal activity. Restrictive migration policies and
border closures have not reduced irregular migration but have reshaped criminal opportunity
structures, increasing reliance on smuggling services and blurring the line between
smuggling and trafficking. Persistent institutional difficulties in identifying trafficking within
mixed migration flows continue to undermine victim protection. The article concludes that
effective responses require stronger victim-centred identification practices alongside border
control and enforcement measures.