State-of-the-Art Comparison of Sensors in Industry 4.0, Industry 5.0, and Low-Cost Monitoring Technologies

Industry 4.0 has transformed modern manufacturing by incorporating internet-connected devices, artificial intelligence, cyber-physical platforms, and advanced data analysis. These innovations have raised automation levels, improved operational performance, and enabled predictive maintenance. Industry 5.0 builds on these foundations by emphasizing collaboration between humans and intelligent machines, promoting environmentally responsible practices, and supporting personalized production models. In parallel, affordable sensor technologies are gaining traction due to their low cost and practical ability to support essential monitoring across diverse applications. This study offers a comparative evaluation of sensor technologies in Industry 4.0, Industry 5.0, and budget-conscious systems, outlining their advantages, limitations, and areas of application. The findings suggest that sensor integration remains central to industrial progress, particularly when linked with IoT, artificial intelligence, and edge-computing solutions that enhance adaptability and real-time decision-making.